posted March 29, 2008 12:28 PM         

SOMA

With this background information on the locus of Rigvedic culture and the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization, we can revisit the archaeological evidence and the textual evidence.

The Soma yajn~a is the soul of the Rigveda (a_tma_ yajn~asya: RV. IX. 2,10; 6,8). Linking with Indra, Soma is called in RV. IX.85,3 the ‘soul (a_tma_) of Indra’, the bolt (vajra) of Indra’ (RV. IX.77,1) and even ‘generator of Indra’ (RV. IX.96.5).

What is Soma? Soma which was the ‘soul’ of the vedic sacrifice was put through three daily pressings, while worshipping all the gods. (Avesta Yasna X.2 mentions only two pressings). Soma/haoma literally means ‘extract’, from the root su – hu ‘to press’. Scores of decipherments have been claimed as summarized by Harry Falk (Soma I and II, 1989, BSOAS, LII, Pt. 1, pp. 77-90). It would appear that a new interpretation is possible: Soma was electrum (gold-silver ore) which was purified in the pavitram to yield potable gold and silver after reducing and oxidizing the baser metals using ks.a_ra supplied by plants and using bones also as reducing agents. (Kalyanaraman, Indian Alchemy: Soma in the Veda, Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, in press). This metallurgical, allegorical interpretation is consistent with the decipherment of the script of the civilization revealed through over 3000 inscriptions on seals, tablets, copper tablets and on metallic weapons. The decipherment claims that the inscriptions are lists of bronze-brass-copper weapons produced by the fire- and metal-workers of the civilization. The dawn of bronze age in the civilization area is attested by many hundreds of artefacts of weapons and tools, apart from exquisite articles of jewellery using gold, silver, electrum, bronze, copper and artificial stones.

In the early stages of the use of Soma, mythology was not the dominant characteristic; it was simply a product which had to be processed. (See also Falk, Harry, Soma I and II, 1989, BSOAS, LII, Pt. 1, pp. 77-90; Falk analyses Soma as a plant and concludes that it was ephedra, used as a stimulant). In the context of the poetics of the Rigveda which abounds in allegories, puns and metaphors, it is hypothesised that only Soma, and Soma alone was a product refined using Agni; all the other references to gods are poetic degrees of freedom to invoke gods into artefacts used in the processing of Soma. Perhaps, even Indra was relatable to the lexeme: indh (semant. firewood or charcoal):

i~dhaur.a_ = room for storing wood (H.); idho_n = tripod to put over the fire (Kal.); indhana = fuel (Pali); e~_date = fireplace (Wg.); saminddhe_ = sets fire to, takes fire; samiddha = ignited; samidh = fuel (RV.); samidha_ = fuel (Pali); samiha_ = fuel (Pkt.); su~dhkan.a_ = to be kindled (P.); negad.i = large fire lighted for warmth in cold weather or to keep off wild beasts (Te.); iruntai, iruntu, iruntil = charcoal (Ta.); cirun = charcoal (Pa.); sindi = soot (Kol.); sirin (pl. sirnil) = charcoal, cinders (Ga.); irk, sirik = charcoal (Go.); ri_ka, ri_nga = charcoal (Pe.); si_nga = charcoal (Kui); ri_nga, ri_ngla charcoal (Kuwi)

Gernot L. Windfuhr, [Haoma/Soma: the plant, in: Acta Iranica 25 (= Papers in Honour of Professor Mary Boyce, Hommages et Opera Minora, 11) (Leiden, 1985), 699-726, see pp. 703, 707] has pointed out that Soma was neither hallucinogenic nor intoxicant and proceeds to identify Soma as ginseng, a root used as a stimulant. The identification of Soma as a root is questionable because ginseng has no component to connote am.s’u/asu.

RV 10.34.1 states: Somasyeva maujavatasya bhaks.o vibhi_dako ja_gr.vir mahyam accha_n (an alerting eatable or food from mount mu_javat). Soma keeps Indra awake (vivyaktha mahina_ vr.s.an bhaks.am. Somasya ja_gr.ve (RV. 8.92.23). Soma is the inspirer or vipra of Angiras (RV. 9.107.6). [cf. an:ga_ra = glowing charcoal (RV.); angar id. (Gypsy). in:gha_l.a = growing embers (Pali); i~gal., i~gl.a_ charcoal-burner (M.); aggi = fire (Te.)] In the context of processing (refining or purifying or smelting) Soma (electrum ore or quartz ), charcoal is a vital component; since charcaol combines with the baser metals and oxidizes them leaving the residual potable, gold-silver compound which is electrum. When Soma is referred to as indrapi_ta or ‘drunk by Indra (indav indrapi_tasya )(PB 1.5.4), the reference is indeed to the reducing action of glowing charcoal embers during the process of smelting the electrum ore. Naturally, Indra received the major share of Soma. (RV. I.2,3; II.41 indicate the sequence of offerings of Soma: va_yu, indra-va_yu, mitra-varun.a, as’vins, indra, vis’ve deva_h, Sarasvati_.) Thus, Indra, as the chief partaker of Soma, is linked with Soma from the mountains (the ore) and some on the earth (ground in pressing-stones): ‘May heavenly drink exhilarate theee, Indra, and also what is pressed in earthly places’. (RV. X. 116,3).

RV. X. 85,3 refers to the Soma known only to the brahmans; this is an early indication of the mystery or secret doctrine that would surround the Soma pressing process in later-day texts. The nature of Soma would be mystified in later texts by references to the moon (the colour of silver component of electrum). Tamil tradition has it in a lexeme: co_ma man.al = sand containing silver ore. (Winslow’s lexicon).

The water element is the potable metal; Vr.tra withheld the waters. Indra frees the waters. Soma is described as having ‘hanging branches bending down’ (naica_s’a_kha: RV. III.53,14) It is not necessary to interpret the term ‘ti_vra’ (sharp) in the context of taste; ti_vra connotes the sharpness of the metallic components of the ore blocks. a~_su = fibrous layer at root of coconut branches, edge or prickles of leaves; a~_s = fibre, pith (Or.); a~_si~_ fine particles of flattened rice in winnowing fan (M.); these lexemes provide a semantic lead to the am.s’u/asu used to describe Soma; the term connotes the streaks of metal, seen like fibres of a stringy fruit or nap of cloth [a~_s (B.)]. The am.s’u was ruddy (RV. VII.98,1). The RV reference to Soma ‘growing’ on the mountains (giris.t.ha_) is explained in the context of the ores obtained from the mines in NW India. (giris.t.ha: RV. III.48,2; V.43.4; IX.18.1, 62,4; parvata_vr.dh: RV. IX.46.1) Hence, the reference to Somam adrau (RV. 5.85.2) plucked in two rocks. The colour of the Soma filaments contained in the ore block are ‘reddish’ or ‘yellow’ (arun.a/arus.a or hari/za_iri). Za_iri = golden-hued (Yasna IX.16,30). RV. 10.97.18, 19 refer to the group of herbs having Soma as their king (Somara_jn~ih); the growth of herbs on the mountains is the obvious reference here. ‘Ma_taris’van fetched one of you (Agni and Soma) from heaven; the eagle twirled the other from the cloud-rock’. (RV. I.93,6). The links of Soma with rocks are vivid. (adri: RV. V.85,2; I.93,6)[See Bloomfield, The Legend of Soma and the Eagle, JAOS, 16, 1896, pp. 1-24). ‘High is the birth of thee, the plant; thee being in heaven the earth received’. (RV. IX. 61.10). Yasna (X.4,10-12,17) places haoma on the high mountain haraiti; it is placed there by a skilful god, wherefrom holy birds carried it everywhere to the heights. Rigveda connects Soma with the mount Mu_javant: ‘As draught of Maujavata Soma, so doth, the enlivening vibhi_daka delight me’ (RV. X.34,1). Griswold notes: ‘The mountain Mu_javantt (if it was a mountain and not simply the name of a people), being closely connected with the Gandha_ris (AV. V.22,5,7,8,14) must have been situated somewhere between Bactria and the Punjab. In the Tait. Samh. I. 8,6,2 and the AV. Passages referred to above the Mu_javants are taken as a type of distant folk, to which Rudra with his fever-bearing bow is entreated to depart. In fact Mu_javant is as far off and mysterious as the river rasa_. Possibly both embody dim reminiscences of the undivided Indo-Iranian days." (p. 217). Soma flourished during the rainy season, swelling with milk (RV. II.13,1), strengthened by the rain-cloud, parjanya (RV. IX.82,3; 113,3). Yasna (X.3): ‘I praise the cloud and the waters that made thy body to grow upon the mountains.’ Later rituals state that Soma had to be purchased from a s’u_dra, who was a trader in Soma who was like the gandharva who held back the celestial Soma. (cf. ks.udraka = maker of minute beads or minor work in gold (Arthas’a_stra: 2.13.37 and 40). There is a reference to ki_kat.as in the context of the sacrifice: ‘Amid ki_kat.as what do thy kine, O Indra? That tribe nor mixture (a_sir or milk for mixing with Soma) pours nor heats oblation; bear thou to us the wealth of pramaganda, give up, O Maghavan, to us the ‘low-branched’. (RV. III.53,14). Regarding the ritual purchase of the Soma, TS. 6,1,6,7 states that one buys the Soma with a ruddy, yellow-eyed cow; ‘this, one should know, is the form of Soma: then one buys it with its own deity. That became gold… Those who discourse on brahman say, ‘how is it that offspring are produced through that which is boneless, and yet are born with bones?’ Because one offers the gold, placing it in the ghee, therefore offspring are born… with bones."

In the tradition of the Black Yajurveda, A_pS’. 10,25,11 states that the adhvaryu should buy the Soma with gold saying: " I buy the bright (s’ukra, Soma) with bright (gold), the glittering (candra) with glittering, the amr.tam with amr.tam to match thy cow" (TS. 1,2,7,1); the Soma-dealer answers: "King Soma deserves more than that". Adhvaryu washes king Soma with water and unfolds him (A_pA’. 11,1,11). "Every shoot of thee, O Soma, must swell for Indra…" (TS. 1,2,11,1). The purpose of the yajn~a is: ‘ by means of ghee as the vajra and two sacrificial ladles as their arms the gods slew Vr.tra. Vr.tra is the Soma. One should know that they slay Soma, when they sacrifice with ghee in his presence. By means of these mantras one makes Soma swell again." (TS. 6,2,2,4)

The Avestan references to Haoma as a plant can be explained as a ritualistic representation of the Soma refining process of the earlier days on the banks of the Sarasvati river. Yasna refers to the scent of the plant (Yasna, 10,4) but RV does not. There is, however, reference to the intense smell of the type common in the workshop of a metalsmith who uses ks.a_ra (plant-based alkalis) to oxidise the impurities or baser metals in an ore block. Griswold notes that there are only two references to haoma in the Ga_tha_s of Zoroaster, one mentioning du_raos’a ‘ the averter of death’ (Yasna, XXXII.14), the standing epithet of haoma in the later Avesta, and the other alluding to ‘the filthiness f this intoxicant’(Yasna, XLVIII.10).These allusions are sufficient to prove that the intoxicating haoma was under the ban of the great reformer (H.D. Griswold, 1923, The Religion of the Rigveda, London, Oxford University Press, p. 14)

Next in importance to Agni and Indra, Soma is addressed in about 120 hymns of the Rigveda. Indra and Varun.a gain anthropomorphic status as gods; but Soma is generally represented in its physical nature.

Soma pavama_na. Soma in the process of passing through the refining instrument (potr.). [The actors are: Hotr., connected with Indra; the Potr. connected with the Maruts (Potr. is the purifying priest; also the ‘cleaning’ insrument); the Nes.t.r. linked with Tvas.t.r.; the divine wives, agni_dh with agni, the brahman with Indra and the pras’a_s.t.r. with mitra-varun.a]. ulu_khala (mortar) is used to press Soma (RV. I.28,1,5; gra_van is rendered as a ‘press-stone’). This is a reference to the pounding of the ore block to pulverize the ore. In Yasna (XXIV.7; XXV.2) ha_vana (hu = to crush) is ‘the utensil in which the twigs of the haoma plant are pounded’. Another method refers to the gra_va_n.ah (press-stones) are placed on the’ox-hide’, held by the hands and with ten fingers and activated through two boards. (RV. X.76,94 and 175). Dhis.an.a_ (RV. X.17,12) is perhaps a reference to a hollow in which the press-stones work. This may be a reference to a hollow covered with ox-hide specially prepared on the sacrificial ground. The ox-hide is refered to in RV. IX.79,4; IX.66,29; IX.101,11 and was used to catch the drops of Soma (apparently, the pulverized bits of the electrum ore block). The later rituals state that the pressing-boards are adhis.avan.a phalaka and are also laid across a sounding-hole dug beneath (See Hillebrandt, VM. I.148). A reference to the sacrificial ground with the hollow is mirrored in the term: r.tasya yoni (RV. IX.64,11,22): the home of the yajn~a. The reference to r.tasya dha_ra_ (RV. IX. 63,14,21) is a reference to the process of flowing through the wool strainer.

Indra’s outward appearance flowed away from his semen and became suvarn.am hiran.yam when he had drunk Soma that was exposed to witching. (S’Br 13,1,1,4: S’Br. 12,7,1,1: retasa eva_sya ru_pam asravat; tat suvarnam hiran.yam abhavat; cf. J.Gonda, 1991, The Functions and Significance of Gold in the Veda, Leiden, E.J.Brill, p. 5). [Note: S’Br. 12,7,2,10: lead (s’i_sa) is ‘a form of both bronze and gold’; ahi is a snake; na_ga is a snake; na_ga = lead (Skt.)] RV. 4,17,11 relates how Indra gained cows, gold, troops of horses. When Soma purifies itself, Soma wins cattle, chariots, gold, the light of heaven, and water for them (RV. 9,78,4). The river Sindhu is rich in excellent horses, good chariots, good garments, rich in gold (RV. 10,7,5,8). RV. 9,112,2 recounts how the blacksmith searches for a customer who possesses (much) gold. Gold is described as s’ukram hiran.yam (RV. 8,65,11) or shining with a light of its own. "He who buys the (Soma) with gold buys it as sas’ukram" (Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_: 6,1,10,1). Even the sun is equated to gold: hiran.yam prati su_ryah (RV. 1,46,10: sun is equivalent to gold). Agni is called hiran.yaru_pa (RV. 4,3,1: gold-like). Apa_m Napa_t (the Child, Descendant of the Waters) has a terrestrial form of the earthly fire and is associated with gold (RV. 2,35,10: hiran.yaru_pah; RV. 2.35,9: hiran.yavarn.a_h). Indra and Va_yu’s chariot (which is ‘heaven-touching’) is made of gold (RV. 4,46,4). RV. 2,35,10 reports that Apa_m napa_t in his earthly manifestation as the sacrificial fire, comes out of the golden yoni (yoni hiran.yaya which is Soma’s seat (RV. 9,64,20).

References to electrum may be noticed in RV. 8,45,22 where the metal silver is called ‘whitish hiran.ya’; rajata is used as an adjective to mean ‘whitish, silver-coloured’. [See A_pS. 5,29,2 which states that rajatam hiran.yam should not be given as a daks.in.a_.]

Pu_s.an has golden ships which sail in the sea (RV. 6,58,3) and bears an axe made of gold (RV. 1,42,6).

RV. 9,86,43 refers to Soma as hiran.yapa_va_h which can be interpreted as ‘purified golden Soma.’

Soma was poured through through a sieve made of wool. Every hymn of Book IX of the Rigveda refers to the filtering through the strainer. (pavitra = sieve, means of purifying, filter; pu_ = to purify; pavate = he cleanses himself; pavama_na = self-purifying). References to filtering are in : RV. IX.1, 1 and 6; IX.28, 1,2,6. ‘Soma while filtering himself, flows thousand-streamed, across the wool’ (RV. IX.13,1). In this filtering process, Soma is tawny in colour; and sounds like the thunder of the sky or the bellowing cattle. In RV. IX.97,33 the word ‘karman’ is used to denote the toil involved in the sacrifice.

Soma is mixed with milk (gava_s’ir = addition of milk to Soma), curd and grain. These are intended to stoke the burning embers and to act as oxidizing agents to remove the baser metals.

The rasa of the Soma is emphasized (RV. 8,3,20; 9,67,8; 15; 9,76,1 describes the rasa as kr.tvya or efficacious, as daks.a or ability. Somya rasa (RV. 9,67,8) is the ‘sap, which constitutes the essence, best, beneficial element of Soma’. The colour of the rasa is hari (yellow, tawny)(RV. 9,19,3; 9,25,1; 9,103,4; 9,78,2; 10,96,6 and 7. RV. 8,29,1 refers to Soma as babhru (reddish-brown) and a youth who is applying a golden ointment (an~ji… hiran.yayam) to himself. RV. 9,107,4 refers to Soma as utsah hiran.yayah: a spring of gold [Geldner, Rig-Veda ubers, K.F. Geldner, Der Rig-Veda ubersetzt, Cambridge, Mass., 1951, III, p. 110). RV. 9,86,43: sindhor ucchva_se patayantam uks.an.am hiran.yapa_va_h pas’um a_su gr.bhn.ate: "purifiers of gold seize in them (i.e. the vasati_vari_ water left standing overnight) the animal (pas’u_), i.e. the bull (Soma) that flies in the upheaving of the river." Thus in this hymn, the gold which is purified referes to the juice of Soma which is golden.

RV. 6,61,7 refers to Sarasvati_ as hiran.yavartani or one endowed with a golden course. RV. 9,8,39; 38 implore Soma to clarify itself while procuring gold.

RV. 9,75,3: ava dyuta_nah kalas’am acikradan nr.bhir yema_nah kos’a a_ hiran.yaye = Soma rushed down in the jars with loud cries, held (in hands) by the men in the golden vessel (kos’e).

Soma is pita_ deva_na_m (RV. IX.109,4) or father of the gods.

Hiran.yagarbha, the golden germ was evolved in the beginning (RV. 10,121,1`). Hiran.yagarbha is the title of Praja_pati, who is declared as the only god who encompasses all the created things (ja_tah patir). "(he) who by his might has ever been (babhu_va) the sole lord of the world that breathes and blinks, who rules over these two-footed and four-footed (beings), to what god shall we pay homage with oblation?" (RV. 10,121,3). This reference is considered by some to be a later addition. (for e.g., cf. Edgerton, F., The Beginnings of Indian Philosophy, London, 1965). The Being who evolved in the beginning is also the lord of the snow-clad mountains, the ocean and the river Rasa_. He is the fashioner who tied heaven and heaven. When the waters moved producing Agni, from the waters evolved the asu (life-principle?) of the gods. [Note the use of am.s’u as an epithet of Soma.] Hiran.yagarbha is the only god over the gods: yo_ deves.v adhi deva eka asi_t.

Rigveda riddled with allegory and metaphor enters the philosophical domain with these descriptions of Hiran.yagarbha. Post-Rigvedic texts and philosophical tracts abound in references to Hiran.yagarbha as attested by J. Gonda (opcit., ppo. 217-246). Ma_nava S’rautasu_tra (MS. 6,2,3,9) stipulates the use of stanzas 1,3, 2-7 of RV. 10,121 (Hiran.yagarbha su_kta) in connection with the naturally perforted ‘brick’ (agnicayana). It has been argued elsewhere that the perforated bricks are integral to the later-day alchemical processes of transmuting baser metals into gold. (Kalyanaraman, opcit., in press)

MAHA_VRATA

Maha_vrata is the last day but one of the Gava_mayana Sattra which represented the whole year. The middle day was the vis.uvat or summer solstice and the last day but one was the Maha_vrata or the winter solstice. The rites are related to the increase of ths sun’s heat after the solstice. [gava_ can be interpreted as ‘earth’ and hence, gava_mayana connotes the reference to the wintersolstice which records the apparent shift in the motion of the sun.]

Some typical activities on this ancient festival day were: warriors fully armed would pierce with arrows the stretched skin of a barren cow. On a rough hide, an a_rya and a s’u_dra wrestle. The Ma_rjali_ya fire is lit and maidens carrying jugs of water on their heads encircle the fire. Maithuna is an attempt to produce fertility as a form sympathetic magic. Music by drumming is played accompanied by obscene language to drive away the demons.

Maha_vrata (as a remarkable example of the continuity of the civilization and culture on the banks of the Sarasvati). Maha_vrata is the day of the winter solstice which is celebrated as the New Year’s Day in Punjab, Assam and Tamil Nadu (cf. Festivals of Rohri, Bogali Bihu, Bhogi-Pongal; the tradition is to burn out the old and herald the new by using the fresh produce from the harvest.) Aitareya a_ran.yaka is an integral component of the Rigveda. The a_ran.yaka has three books: (1) the first book explains the maha_vrata as a ritual and as an allegory and described the ‘sastras of the morning, midday and evening libations of the maha_vrata day of the gava_mayana; (2) the second book explains the allegory of the uktha, which is the nis.kevalya s’astra (midday s’astra as the pra_n.a or purus.a); the second book also has the superb upanis.ad (adhy_ayas 4-6); (3) the third book discusses the mystic meaning of the various forms of the text of the sam.hita_, the nirbhuja, pratr.n.n.a and ubhayamantaren.a, and of the vowels, semivowels and consonants. These terms are used to described the sam.hita_, pada and krama pa_t.has of the sam.hita_. The fourth book has maha_na_mni_ verses to be studied in the forest. The fifth book has the nis.kevalya s’astra of the midday libation of the maha_vrata. The fifth book is attributed to S’aunaka (ca. 500 B.C.) who is anterior to Pa_n.ini by about 100 years. (A.B.Keith, 1909, Aitareya A_ran.yaka, Oxford, Clarendon Press).

"Now begins the Maha_vrata rite. Indra having slain Vr.tra became great. When he became great, then there came into being the Maha_vrata." (Sa_yan.a explains the term mah_vrata: maha_n bhavaty anena vratena or mahato devasya vratam or mahac ca tad vratam. (Aitareya A_ran.yaka I.1)

"In the Maha_vrata ceremony there are twenty-five verses to accompany the kindling of the fire (Aitareya A_ran.yaka: V.1)

Maha_vrata is an agnis.t.oma and has the morning, midday and evening pressings of the Soma.. The fire-altar is in the shape of a bird. The activity of the Hotr. in the Maha_vrata rite is recorded only in the Aitareya A_ran.yaka and the S’a_n:kha_yana A_ran.yaka. The activity is shrouded in total secrecy. "The Adhvaryu brings up the vessel containing the libation and the (three) atigra_hya bowls. As soon as he perceives the food, the Hotr. Descends from the swing towards the east. Then they tie up the swin to the west that it may not slay the reciter when about to eat. For the Hotr. eats seated on the place of the swing. Then the Hotr. consumes the (libation in the) vessel with the words uttered in response, ‘May speech, the deity, rejoice in the Soma,’ ‘May Soma, the king, shower life on me for my breath,’ ‘May my breath milk mightily all life… At the proper time they should carry the swing to the bath, and burn together the seats.’ " (Aitareya A_ran.yaka : V.3,2) As it is completed, the vedi and the br.si_s are both consumed by fire.

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